Influence of 16th Century Society on English Literature

The Sixteenth Century (1485-1603) Literary works in sixteenth-century England were rarely if ever created in isolation from other currents in the social and cultural world. The boundaries that divided the texts we now regard as aesthetic from other texts that participated in the spectacles of power or the murderous conflicts of rival religious factions or the rhetorical strategies of erotic and political courtship were porous and constantly shifting.It is perfectly acceptable, treating Renaissance texts as if they were islands of the autonomous literary imagination. One of the greatest writers of the period, Sir Philip Sidney, defended poetry in just such terms; the poet, Sidney writes in The Defence of Poetry(NAEL 1. 933-54), is not constrained by nature or history but freely ranges â€Å"only within the zodiac of his own wit. † Many sixteenth-century artists, such as Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare, brooded on the magical, transforming power of a rt.This power could be associated with civility and virtue, as Sidney claims, but it could also have the demonic qualities manifested by the â€Å"pleasing words† of Spenser's enchanter, Archimago (NAEL 1. 63), or by the incantations of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (NAEL 1. 990-1025). It is significant that Marlowe's great play was written at a time in which the possibility of sorcery was not merely a theatrical fantasy but a widely shared fear, a fear upon which the state could act with horrendous ferocity.Marlowe's tragedy emerges not only from a culture in which bargains with the devil are imaginable as real events but also from a world in which many of the most fundamental assumptions about spiritual life were being called into question by the movement known as the Reformation. Catholic and Protestant voices struggled to articulate the precise beliefs and practices thought necessary for the soul's salvation.One key site of conflict was the Bible, with Catholic authorities try ing unsuccessfully to stop the circulation of the unauthorized Protestant translation of Scripture by William Tyndale, a translation in which doctrines and institutional structures central to the Roman Catholic church were directly challenged. The Reformation is closely linked to many of the texts printed in the sixteenth-century section of Spenser's Faerie Queene (NAEL 1. 628-772), for example, in which a staunchly Protestant knight of Holiness struggles against the satanic forces of Roman Catholicism. Text: The Norton Anthology of English Literature Vol. 1. 6th ed. (NAEL)

Consumer & Industrial Buyer Behaviour Assignment

In consumer markets, segmentation typically entails statistically categorizing a large number of customers with similar needs into the same group so that they can be reached with similar marketing and advertising channels. By doing so, the marketer can then analyze the needs of the consumers and cater the products to better fit their needs. For the consumers, the decision process for making purchases begin with need recognition — they differentiate between their actual or desire states. Needs are the basic forces that motivate the person to do something. Some needs involve a person's physical well being; others the individual's self-view and relationship with others. Needs are more basic than wants. Wants are needs that are learned during the person's life. A successful marketer will be able to create the need amongst consumers and try to satisfy it. After the consumer become aware of their needs or wants, they will store them in their memory or go around searching for information on these needs. There are two kinds of searches: internal and external. Internal search is when the consumers search within their existing knowledge base, beliefs and attitudes. External search is when they seek information from neighbors, sales peoples or consumer reports etc. The consumer can obtain information from any of several sources: personal, commercial, public and experiential. Personal sources include family and friends. The personal sources are important for the person when making a buying decision. The marketer can use commercial sources such as advertising and point-of-sale marketing to reinforce the product awareness and increase the knowledge of the brand name. After gathering information from various sources, the consumer will then start to evaluate the different alternatives, weighing the pros against the cons. They rank the brands and form purchase intention. The purchase decision will result in the consumers buying the preferred brand and two factors can affect the purchase intention: attitudes of the others and unexpected situational factors. If you wants to buy product A, but your mother feels product B is cheaper while the quality of the two products is similar, it is very likely that you will end up buying product B instead. After purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied if they find that the product has met or exceeded their expectations. Re-purchases will likely occur, and consumers will probably introduce the product to their relatives and friends and become loyal customers of the brand. If, on the other hand, the reverse occurs, bad word-of-mouth will result and even consumers who have never tried the product will be hesitant to buy it. Societal values in the Body Shop It is critical that all aspects of the firm's marketing mix be consistent with the value system of its target market. Different groups will have different value systems and marketers must adjust their activities to the values of their target group. Marketers must also change their marketing mix as the value systems of their target groups evolve. Fortunately, values generally change slowly. Firms will have time to allow the practices to evolve if they monitor customer values. Firms can do that by conducting their own monitoring surveys or subscribe to one of the many commercial surveys. However, caution should be used in responding to popular press declarations of major value shifts. Nowadays, most of customers increasing concern for the environment. Marketers need to respond this approach by 1) producing products whose production, use or disposal is less harmful to the environment than the traditional versions of the product, 2) developing products that have a positive impact on the environment or 3) tying the purchase of a product to an environmental organization or event. Marketers need to be cautious when making environmental claims. Those most concerned with the environment are opinion leaders who are active shoppers. These people carefully evaluate advertising claims and are skeptical about them. As concern for the environment grew throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, many firms began to improve their products and processes relative to the environment and to advertise those improvements. In recent years, most of the companies have included ethical objectives in their mission statement. The products and services provided by these companies acquire a special meaning to their customers, which is associated with the value chain. However, failure to live up to ethical objectives may attract criticism. One company that has been very successful establishing an environmentally friendly image is â€Å"The Body Shop.† The name â€Å"The Body Shop† creates a natural and ethic subculture to the customers, which is further reinforced by the use of green to decorate their retail shops. It gives a standardized message – The Body Shop sells natural products. Store image is composed of many different factors. Store features, coupled with such consumer characteristics as shopping orientation, help to predict which shopping outlets people will prefer. Some of the important dimensions of a store's profile are location; merchandise suitability and the knowledge and congeniality of the sales staff. The Body Shop started in Brighton on the South Coast of England by Anita Roddick with only twenty-five hand-mixed products on sale in 1976. At first, The Body Shop employed mostly friends and friends of friends and everybody viewed themselves as one big family. However, the organization rapidly expanded through a system of franchises and to gain a franchise the potential franchises are all screened to ensure that they have the same ethical beliefs as the founder. The Body Shop now operates around the world with almost one thousand four hundred shops. The Body Shop maintains a number of formal policies, guidelines and manuals that underpin the ideals expressed in the Mission Statement. The Body Shop ‘s mission statement as quoted in Values Report 1997 is that the company is unique in explicitly giving attention to social problems. They focus on social responsibility and naturally based quality personal care products. Their core principles are organized into five pillars: Defend human Rights; Protect Our Planet; Promote Community Trade; Activate Self-esteem and Against Animal Testing. These are core to their campaigning and community engagement programmes and are an integral part of their business philosophy and practice. The Body Shop is committed to doing business with integrity and transparency. This means using their principles to inform customers of the way they do business and setting their business partners and themselves clear standards of practice. It also involves engaging stakeholders with their business aims and reporting on their performance within the overall context of their business strategy. They focus are on being a world-class retailer, offering customers prestige products at value prices with excellent customer services. In United Kingdom, they have driven through a major initiative called ‘Inspiring the Customer' in order to improve service. Unlike other cosmetics companies, the Body Shop does not claim that their cosmetics will eliminate wrinkles, make you look years younger or thirty pounds slimmer and change one's life. The company promotes health and well-being instead of beauty. Instead, it used stories to promote products. In 1998, they introduce Ruby dolls- love your body. She is a fat lady like a real person and she does not look like conventional models. The whole campaign aimed to give a self-esteem message to the customers. The Body Shop's philosophy of promoting health and well-being and actually serves as a promotion device. They focus on naturalness and health is a kind of niche marketing strategy, which attracts a relatively small segment of the market. This niche market generated a pre-tax profit of GBP20.4 million in 2003. The Body Shop sells skin and hair care products from Vitamin E cream to Tea Tree Oil, from Banana Shampoo to Aloe Vera Lotion. All in all, The Body Shop's product range includes over 400 products and 400 accessories. There are special product lines for men, for expectant mothers and for babies. There are sun-tanning products perfume oils and a full range of accessories, including brushes, towels, household gloves and sponges. At the time of writing, it enhanced its skin care range with the launch of kinetin. The Body Shop also undertook a stance of being against animal testing and seeking to gain attention and business from the environmentalist market by recycling bottles and keeping wastage to a minimum. However, it is worth noting that The Body Shop originally introduced recycling plastic bottles as a cost reduction exercise. Due to falling customer demand, the company discontinued their long-running refill service in January 2003. However, by investing time and resources to introduce the recycled plastic programme they believe they will have a greater positive impact on the environment globally than their refill service could possibly offer. In November 1998, the United Kingdom government banned tests on cosmetic products and ingredients. There were also finished product test bans in the Netherlands and Germany. After two years, Europe banned cosmetics animal testing. It is an environment influence the customers chose their cosmetics. They will choose the anti-animal testing cosmetics. The Body Shop was the first international cosmetics retailer to be approved in the USA for its non-animal testing policy under a common Corporate Standard of Compassion for Animals. The Body Shop asserts a philosophy based on the exchange principle: a company that owes its success to society should do something in return. Hence, the company should take responsibility for society in several respects. Of course there is no real indication that social and environmental policies negatively impact The Body Shop's profits. Rather the company cultivates an ethical profile and its customers get the idea that in buying the products, they help people in the Third World or help save the environment. The company's Fair Trade policy includes buying ingredients and accessories from Third World countries, thus attempting to improve living conditions in poor areas. In 2001/2 The Body Shop purchased over GBP5 million worth of natural ingredients and accessory items through the Community Trade programme, including nearly 60 tonnes of natural ingredients. Now there are 37 suppliers ranging from Nicaraguan sesame farmers to Indian handicraft producers from 24 countries from Australia to Zambia. The sponsoring of Greenpeace in 1985 reinforced this approach. In addition to encouraging employee involvement in the local community, the Company also facilitates employees' personal donations to their selected charities through a give-as you-earn payroll scheme. Other initiatives include Charity Works, an on-site charity shop enabling employees at the United Kingdom head office and distribution center in Littlehampton to purchase products that are substandard or shop spoiled. This initiative allows for the disposal of non-saleable stock in an environmentally responsible way, while also bringing benefits to the local community and employees of The Body Shop. The use of environmental and ethical issues are used to appeal to those who have the same concerns as well as in gaining free publicity from local and national press. Marketing uses psychographics to identify those not only with the desire for more natural and high quality products, but those with the same beliefs and attitudes towards the products they buys. The increased awareness in environmentalism and concern over the way the planet is being treated has also created a fashion of environmental awareness, taking this appeal mainstream rather than remaining as a marginal target market. The good value and the simple packaging with clear labels were also more extensive than most common brands. For many products there is a decision making process, this takes place in the black box. Black box models treat the individual and his or her physiological and psychological make-up as an impenetrable black box. They are concerned with the external environmental influences on behavior and in the context of consumer behavior. The producer is affected by the actions of its competitors and the government; distributors are affected by the sales and marketing efforts of their suppliers and by the needs of consumers and finally consumers are affected by the marketing activities of producers and retailers and by the actions of the other consumers. This may be by the category-based evaluation or piecemeal processing. Category based decision making is a method of evaluating a product. The category based process will involve the consumer will make use of the existing knowledge or memories that they already have regarding the product. They may remember that a particular brand was associated with Fair Trade, or received a good review in a magazine. Advertising may play a large part in this but as the Body Shop philosophy is against advertising. Many of the consumers will have gone into the shop aware of the philosophy, this is usually through publicity surrounding Anita Roddick or by the notices that advertising the philosophy in the window such as trade not aid and supporting environmental issues. A piecemeal process is where the consumer takes into account the different characteristics of the different products. The consumer looking for a product may therefore look to see if it is scented, tested on animals, what the strength and type is described as and possibly even the usefulness of the jar after the product is used. In attracting the consumers into the store the category process may be used and inside the piecemeal process may be seen as determining what products are purchased. Conclusion The consumer decision produces an image of an individual carefully evaluating the attributes of asset of products, brands or services and rationally selecting the one that solves a clearly recognized need for the least cost. It has a rational, functional connotation. While consumers do make many decisions in this manner, many others involve little conscious effort. Furthermore, many consumer decisions focus not on brand or with the environment in which the product is purchase or used. Purchase cosmetics requires limited decision making. It involves internal and limited external search, few alternatives, simple decision rules on a few attributes and little post purchase evaluation The marketers of the Body Shop are helping consumers recognize problems. The approach is generic problem recognition to cause problem recognition. It creates the need for affiliation and for assertion. Affiliation is the need to develop mutually helpful and satisfying relationship with others. Group membership is a critical part of most consumers' lives and many consumer decisions are based on the need to maintain satisfying relationships with others. The need for assertion reflects a consumer's need for engaging in those types of activities that will bring about an increase in self-esteem as well as esteem in the eyes of others. The Body Shop has full range body products and they are natural and protect environment and has gained a first mover advantage in this market. The Body Shop believes that disclosure is an important tool in helping stakeholders to feel engaged in its business aims and approach. As importantly, it regards the discipline of preparing accounts and reviewing its performance in an objective way as a crucial management tool for developing the company's understanding of its current approach. The company aims to provide a current insight into the business to share its philosophy and aims and helps manage expectations around its ongoing performance. It will create the customer awareness and reinforce them to choose their products. The product is seen as ethically appealing with good quality ranges that appeal to a wide target market. The slightly high price of a high mid rate product is justified by the increased value that consumer places on the goods and the way that the consumer will also feel good about themselves. Promotion is the communication of the company values in some form. All these come together to form a successful company that has since been emulated by many larger leading companies, however they lack the credibility and as such fail in total emulation.

Nonverbal Communication and Service Users

Be able to meet the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of individuals 1. Find out an individual’s communication and language needs, wishes and preferences. 2. Demonstrate communication methods that meet an individual’s communication needs, wishes and preferences. 3. Show how and when to seek advice about communication. It is always important to find out about each individual’s particular communication and language needs, wishes and preferences.Effective communication happens when the right method is used to send a message, so it can be received and understood. Health and social care practitioners need to know about a range of communication methods. They should also be skilled at identifying the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of the people with whom they work and interact. Health and social care settings are used by people from a diverse range of backgrounds who will want to communicate in different ways.Finding out about each individual’s language needs, wishes and preferences is an important part of my role. I can do this by: †¢asking people whether they or their relatives have particular language or communication needs †¢reading reports and notes about service users that provide information on speech and language issues, learning difficulties, disabilities (e. g. hearing or visual impairment) or physical conditions (e. g. troke, cleft palate) that may affect their ability to communicate †¢being aware that an individual’s culture, ethnicity and nationality may affect their language preferences and needs †¢observing the people who use my setting to see how they use their communication and language skills †¢asking my supervisor/mentor, senior staff and specialist professionals such as speech and language therapists, occupational therapists and social workers for information, advice and support about how best to communicate with adults who have special comm unication needs.Hearing impaired people Make sure that my face can be seen clearly,face the light and the person I am speaking to at all times, speak clearly and slowly – repeat and rephrase if necessary, minimise background noise,use my eyes, facial expressions and gestures to communicate, where appropriate, do not be tempted to shout into a person’s ear or hearing aid. Visually impaired people Speak in the same way as I would to a sighted person – not louder or more slowly! say who I am in my greeting as my voice won’t necessarily be recognised even if I have met the person before, always introduce other people who are with me and explain what is going on if a visually impaired adult joins me in a group, let the visually impaired person know when I am about to do something that is likely to affect communication (such as leave the room or move away), end conversations clearly and let the person know that I amleaving – do not just walk away, ask th e person if they need any particular help – to sit down or to move about, for example – but do not assume that this is always necessary or wanted.Health and social care practitioners use two main types of communication as part of their work roles. These are verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is based on the use of words. Health and social care practitioners need effective verbal skills to: ? obtain information from colleagues, service users and others who use the setting ? respond to questions ?contribute to team meetings ?give feedback and report observations about service users ? provide support to service users, relatives and colleagues ? eal with problems and complaints ?write notes and reports Non-verbal communication occurs when a person uses their body, behaviour and appearance to communicate with others. For example, an individual’s body language may tell a health or social care practitioner that they are uncomfortable or need to g o to the toilet even when they say they’re okay. Non-verbal communicationWhat does it involve? Examples Eye contactLooking another person directly in the eyesShort or broken eye contact can express nervousness, shyness or mistrust.Long unbroken eye contact can express interest, attraction or hostility. Touch Physically touching or holding a personHolding someone’s hand Placing a hand on a person’s arm or shoulder to reassure them Physical gesturesDeliberate movements of the hands to express meaningThumbs-up gesture to show agreement or pleasure Shaking a fist to show anger or aggression Body language Facial expressionMovements of the face that express a person’s feelingsSmiling FrowningProximityThe physical closeness between people during interactionsBeing very close may be reassuring and may be seen as accepting the person. It might also make the person feel uncomfortable and threatened. People need less personal space (increased proximity) when they hav e a close, trusting relationship. To be an effective communicator in my work setting, I need to be able to use methods of communication that meet each individual’s needs, wishes and preferences. My goal is always to ensure that the messages I send can be received and understood.Perhaps I will be aware that I am struggling to communicate effectively with somebody. In situations like these, I should seek advice and obtain support. I can do this by: ?talking to my supervisor, mentor or line manager about the difficulty – ask for their advice about how to deal with the problem ? talking to communication or language support specialists (teachers, psychologists or speech and language therapists) who work at or spend time in my work setting.

MGM330-0704A-04 Business Decision-Making - Phase 2 DB Essay

MGM330-0704A-04 Business Decision-Making - Phase 2 DB - Essay Example The three options of credit discount incentive offers are cash back on online purchases, cash back on purchases at clothing stores and entry into a sweepstakes every time the customer utilizes the credit card. The key quantitative tool that determines which option is more attractive for the customer is probability. Probability is the chance of an event occurring (McClave & Benson & Sincich, 2001). For example if a person flips a coin which has only two possible outcomes the probability of the coin landing on heads is 50%. The Piggy case provides some research which can help a statistician determine the probability of a client winning a sweepstakes. The odds of winning a prize are 1 in 1000, thus the chances of winning are 0.1%. The company determines that the average American makes 52 credit card purchases a year. Each of these 52 occurrences represents a separate event with a probability of 0.1% of winning the prize. The value the customer receives can be compared to buying 52 one d ollar lotto tickets. There are lotteries that offer a 1 in 1000 chance of winning $500 when a person purchases a $1 ticket. The attractiveness of this option depends of what is the actual prize of the sweepstakes the company is offering. The other probability of the other two option can not be determine right now without additional data, but this does not mean that an initial analysis can not be performed. As far as the probability the two options follow a different probability called subjective probability. Subjective probability utilizes statistical models based on past information in which two different players may have different probabilities for the occurrence of a same event (Levine & Stephan & Krehbiel & Berenson, 2006). To understand this concept lets analyze each option. The online purchases option implies that a person will be attractive by the incentive because the customer can get cash on online

Problem solving Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Problem solving - Case Study Example The CEO, Dirk Henry, should be advised to resign because of the bad image he lends to the company by calling the activists tree-huggers, as well as failing as a CEO to upgrade their fleet of ships. As a CEO, he should take charge of making decisions like that. The best punishment for them would be to serve the community that was affected by the oil spill. They should contribute a large sum of money for the clean up. It is a punishment because they would lose a lot of money, but then again they would earn positive public image for it. External problems of this company involve their image: they are now seen as a passive company without really caring for its staff and employees. They are also seen as non-environmentally friendly company. Extensive PR campaigns, as well as community work should take care of this, and possibly by sacking their CEO. Internal problems are rooted to the external problems. The employees are now demoralized (it’s their 50th anniversary after all) and they are probably confused. They are also burdened with the weight of the problem that was produced by the ship mishap. Their stocks would definitely fall, and their company would probably have a financial setback. PR campaigns, and proper forums should take care of the employee’s doubts. The organizational culture surely helped because they knew their roles as members of the company (except for the CEO). They knew that their actions would reflect to the corporation and they did well. They knew how to act as a unit. The moral reasoning reflected in the discussions, I believe, is the â€Å"caring ethics†. The posts revolved about caring for the company, caring for the environment and caring for the employees of the company. The plan of action revolved around the community and the environment. The reasoning behind it is this: when the company shows that it cares for the community and the environment, people would believe that they are not negligent about their

Global Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global Marketing - Essay Example egments, selecting one or more attractive market segments and deciding on the appropriate and effective market strategies to implement in these segments. The next step following target marketing is positioning, which refers to the process of creating a brand image, in consumers’ minds, that is unique, distinct and clearly different from that offered by competitors. Successfully positioning relies on the development of effective differentiation strategies. Differentiation is an aspect of marketing that entails development of unique strategies, which are difficult for competitors to imitate. There are several bases and approaches to market segmentation (Lynn, 2011). Firstly, marketers may use demographic variables including income, age, gender and education level. Secondly, marketers may use psychological variables including values, opinions, attitudes and interests. Thirdly, behavioral variables such as channel usage, brand preference, purchase frequency and media habits may also be used. Fourthly, segmentation may also be based on geographic variables including nation, state, region or neighborhood type. Dibb (1999) observes that apart from these variables, marketing experts also determines the attractiveness of the various market segments in relation to the responsiveness of customers to the marketing strategies, accessibility of the segments in terms of product distribution and communication, size and stability of the segment. Havaldar (2005) observes that market segmentation process involves three key steps namely market research, segment analysis and creation of segment profiles. Market research involves collection of relevant and appropriate information about the market. Typical information collected includes buyer purchase considerations, current and future market needs, competitor information and customer buying behavior. Once market data is collected, Havaldar argues that it is necessary to analyze and refine this information using analysis tools such

J&G Garden Center Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

J&G Garden Center - Case Study Example Additionally, it is reported they are competent, efficient, and effective in the execution of their duties (J&G Garden Center Case 171). Therefore, it would be imperative for Mr. Weed to take the liability of what he has actually tried to avoid. In regards to the environmental pollution from the chemical and other biohazards related to his product, he built a secure house with a locked barbed wire face as well as an alarm system that would alert them in case of any danger related to his business. Moreover, he constructed Material Runoff Proof Segment and took a special liability insurance policy to ensure the business is covered at any time of any dangerous eventuality. All these initiatives were meant to protect the worker, customer, the community, and the environments that are exposed to the business’ products. In other words, the business if fully compliant with regulatory, customers and environmental safety thereby it neither have loopholes nor undermined operational requi rements. However, it is proper that Mr. Weed is considered an ethical conflict for the closure of the divider. The business has a high profit margin and the only this Weed can do is to provide additional education on the after use safety measures through sensitizing the community and the persons he considers of concern (Duska and Rongione 92). In addition, he may hire or train more workers on the use of his products so that they may conduct regular monitoring and inspection places or fields that these chemicals are used to reduce the negative effects of these chemical on the users and their immediate surroundings (J&G Garden Center Case 171). In this manner, Weed shall have adequately solved the ethical conflicts surrounding his business. Part Two: Closing the New Division It is proper that the business is shut down the business since it is apparent that the business does not meet the minimum requirement set by the business. The minimum requirements herein are the ineffectiveness of the measures already intended to be met by the business. It should be noted that the company should maintain its name at all time during its operational life since the name company of the company is what makes such a company viable (J&G Garden Center Case 172). In fact, serious ethical issues affecting new division including lawsuits may affect the operation of Weed’s other business. Therefore, it will only be proper to shut down the business in favor of the operation of other businesses. However, instead of closing the business, Weed may improve the business profile with the focus on solving the ethical and legal problems currently facing the business. Numerous initiatives and measure may be taken towards improving the current business situation. As suggested by his wife and partners in his businesses, Weed should embark on a serious marketing (Schwartz 94). Marketing is a sure way of building confidence of the customer and the public on the business. Additionally, in his m arketing scheme, Weed should include well-articulated measures towards preventing the already identified problems associated with the application of his products. The business should also develop intensive monitoring trends to ensure that their customers, other than promising to adhere strictly to the down listed precaution requirement, they are actually following them to the letter (J&G Garden Center Case 172). Efficient, effective, and adequate monitoring will enable the company to detect any problem that is associated with

Reaction paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Reaction paper 2 - Essay Example Ray Eddy resorts to conduct illegal business after her husband left with all the family savings. Eddy and her two children no longer can survive on the meagre wages she gets from her stores. She meets Lila, who lately, has been in the business of smuggling immigrants. The two movies have remarkable contrasts. The essay illustrates key differences evident in the two films. The first difference between the two films relates to their production. Karate Kid is a Hollywood film. The production was courtesy of Sony Pictures, which makes it a major studio film (Horn 1). Frozen river, on the contrary, was a production of the Cohen Media Group company. Other companies credited for the film’s production are Harwood Hunt Productions and Off Hollywood Pictures. Its run time is 98 minutes. That is contrary to the Karate Kid that has a runtime of 2 hours 20 minutes. There is a remarkable difference in the manner in which viewers are represented in the two films. That explains the differences in which eurocentrism operates in the two films. Eurocentrism relates to perceptions of exceptionalism of Europe that developed to a worldview after western civilization. Hollywood, over a long time, has promoted the concept of Eurocentrism in most movies and films. In essence, such films depict the perceived supremacy that Europe holds. Eurocentrism is evident in the Karate Kid depicted through its characters. It implies that common notion of superiority evident in Dre to learn and compete with peers, who were initially superior. That emphasizes eurocentrism being that the two characters, Dre and Wang are from different regions. That differs from the depiction of characters in the Frozen River. The film does not reveal Eurocentrism and aspects of superiority. There is difference in the manner in which non-White main characters in the two films

People can read others' minds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

People can read others' minds - Essay Example Is it an inborn psychic ability or being hypersensitive to how others feel and think? Each person has a certain degree of psychic ability, some more than others. People gifted with psychic abilities use the power of the mind and extra sensory perception (ESP) to help them clearly anticipate what is going to happen. They can also channel their energies in reading other people’s minds. Sometimes, this ability can be beneficial for them because they would know how to respond to a person or an event, having had a foreknowledge of that person’s thoughts or the images of details of the event. On the other hand, they absorb negative thoughts or see visions of disastrous events and these readings can upset them too much. Any ordinary person also has natural mind abilities that help him get through some situations, and one of this is being able to discern what other people will say or do. The ability to read minds goes far back to our ancient roots when we managed to feel our way around. This was when communication systems were not as sophisticated. People were easy to read because they were bereft of any hidden agendas that complicated their lives. Technology was very limited and there were no distractions such as the television, internet, etc. and people focused on other people. When they communicated with each other, they gave their full attention. Being so in sync with each other, it was easy to read each other’s minds. Ross Buck, a Communication Sciences professor at the University of Connecticut contends that mind reading has been used by people to â€Å"create and maintain the social order† (Paul: para 8). Hence, people relied on mind reading to keep the harmony between them. How ever, mind reading is not literally just reading the other person’s thoughts. It also takes interpreting his gestures, actions and language. It is difficult to â€Å"mind-read† if one cannot see the other person move and talk. Reading a person becomes

Martin Luther King as a Leader Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Martin Luther King as a Leader - Essay Example It was through bold and inspirational speeches that King established a reputation as a great orator. However, this also painted him a radical and subject to federal surveillance for the rest of his life. In addition, King is recognized for his phlegmatic way of approaching crisis as he advocated for the rights of all. Martin Luther King Jr represented the African-American community, but in essence, this translates to all minority communities who lived an oppressed life. This oppression came about following colonization and the slave trade where the rights of those perceived to a weak community were subjected to a wide range of discrimination. Segregation and discrimination with regard to race, gender and education were outlawed following advocacy for civil rights. This marks a critical step towards generating independence among communities. This clearly illustrates that even as King fought for the rights of African-Americans, the benefits would be felt across different communities both regionally and nationally. King mounted a challenge to oppression by defying the status quo, which eventually got support from other members of the community other than African-Americans. However, there still exist a wide disparity based on ethnicity, race, religion and gender in modern America. This creates the need for more activism and effective leadership to bridge the gap, eliminating existing disparities. In order to take up leadership and advocate for change, one must consider every possible angle relevant to the vision he has. This way, his vision should illustrates the benefits of the intended changes and how best to effect it. In this regard, one should develop a vision in which he firmly believes in before making it a mission. Consequently, a leader seeking to transform the beliefs held by many must establish a vivid vision of

Chicago history Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Chicago history - Assignment Example For instance, voters’ defeat of Thompson showed that many Chicago residents were tired of the ensuing disorder. Notably, reformist and citizens groups advocated for a stringent enforcement of prohibition, in addition to the immediate onslaught on corruption, crime and social vices. Thus, such belief united ethnic voters as well as politicians in Chicago and subsequently reformists’ mayors, such as William Dever were elected (Lecture notesâ€Å"Chicago in the Roaring Twenties† 6). Question 12 Lause, Mark A. "Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement, and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America." Business And Economics--Labor And Industrial Relations 60 (2007): 298-300. The objective of this article is to examine the repercussion of Haymarket riots and its brunt on the labor plus radical movements within the recognizable provisions of defeat as well as demise. The article assesses the repression of labor plus radicalism within Chicago , based on the assumption that there was an extensive authorized repression aimed at destroying the eight-hour movement along with the unity it momentarily inspired. Thus, according to Lause the police basically prevented an imminent revolution. The position taken by the author is that, even though segments of the movement at first backed away from the charged men, the extensive defense campaign shifted to an amnesty movement which inspired modern socialist International that went on to declare May Day an international labor day. Green, James. "Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement, and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America." The Journal of American History 94.1 (2007): 302-303. This journal article re-creates the Haymarket riots in order to demonstrate the growth of the earliest great labor movement following the American Civil War along with the twenty-year fight for the eight-hour working period. Green displays how the movement triumphed over several setbacks to coordinate a sequence of strikes which swept the nation during 1886, and as a result positioning the unions for a triumph on the eve of Haymarket tragedy. Green examines the frustrations, tensions plus exhilarating victories of the Midwestern source of strength of Gilded Age. Question 13 The cost of the Fair is worth the benefits Chicago received, since it generated extensive hysteria in opposition to immigrants and the labor leaders. Moreover, the affair destroyed the labor movement resistance in Chicago and is not worth the benefits Chicago received since it only stimulated the social consciousness of many people in Chicago rather than bridging reforms. However, it enthused generations of leftist activists and artists and it is for the most part considered as the origin of global May Day observances for workforces. The fair also displayed the worst of the city class struggle. Question 14 Paddon, Anna R and Sally Turner. "African Americans and the World's Columb ian Exposition,." Illinois Historical Journal 88.1 (1995): 19-36. The thesis of the article is that even though the fair officials discouraged the attempts of African Americans in achieving reforms, the activities conducted in that fair became the foundation for African American political social along with artistic movement. Hence, the aim of the study was to examine the approach, group alignment, together with mentoring relationships formed by Africans Americans from the fair. The authors Paddon,

An Analysis of the Watergate Crisis Essay Example for Free

An Analysis of the Watergate Crisis Essay The Watergate crisis or scandal shrouded America with an attitude of pessimism. From the people involved and the meaning of the controversy then and now, the Watergate crisis rocked the world with political conflicts and power abuse. It also involved crimes such as obstruction of justice, conspiracy, cover up, lying under oath, espionage, burglary, and concealment of evidence. The scandal was named after the Watergate hotel complex in Washington that housed the rival of President Nixons Republican Party, the Democratic Party. The crisis was so powerful that it resulted in the resignation of President Nixon, indictment of the President and his men, and significant media and political effects. The scandal started out with classified documents, clumsy thefts, and a trail of crimes pointing directly to Nixons re-election committee. Thereafter, the crisis did not stop at the tactless White House personnel or the famous Presidents men. It continued all the way to Nixon himself which caused him his Oval Office. It was perceived as a political crisis created by a leaders greed, cruelty and paranoia. Ultimately, history accounted that Nixons own evil foe was not his political opponents but himself. It was chronicled by several books, articles, and official and federal documents, as well as a Redford-Hoffman movie in 1976. The Watergate scandal served not only as previous catalysts of American political, social and moral changes but now more as reminders or guiding principles of American lives. Historical Summary In the history of American presidential politics, the Watergate incident was taken as the most grave and peculiar crisis or scandal. This is because of the apparent direct involvement in several crimes of the president himself and his men. In his book, â€Å"The Watergate Crisis,† Genovese (1999) described the scandal as unusual and Nixon as an unusual kind of President of the United States (Genovese, 1999). According to Genovese (1999), the cause of the Watergate scandal can be traced from the negative impacts, such as the factions, of the Vietnam War. Nixon had difficulty getting out from the said divisive war and was eventually faced with various protests. Genovese (1999) added that with pressures to stop the protests and get out of the Vietnam war with respect and dignity intact, Nixon unfortunately created a route filled with â€Å"leak plugging, wiretapping, a secret war in Cambodia, and a series of criminal acts that in the end led to his downfall and fed the already significant erosion of public trust in government† (p. 3). The same Genovese book further said that what used to be a general term that referred to the burglary of the offices of the Democratic National Committee in a Washington hotel complex resulted into various linking terminologies and included beneath it are several crimes. The crisis caused the downfall of Nixon while several highest-ranking government officials were made to serve jail terms, hurting the nation as a result (Genovese, 1999). The Watergate Break-in The Watergate break-in or burglary happened on June 17, 1972 (Sirica, 1979). During his round, a security officer of the Watergate Hotel Complex in Washington D. C. identified as Frank Willis saw a tape covering various locks of different doors in the area. Willis discreetly reported the matter to the police and thereafter, five burglars were arrested. The five men were suspected of illegally wiretapping and stealing classified documents inside the office of the Democratic National Committee or DNC (Sirica, 1979). The suspects were identified in the book of Dickinson, Cross and Polsky (1973) as â€Å"Virgilio Gonzales, Bernard Barker, James W. McCord, Jr. , Eugenio Martinez and Frank Sturgis. † The suspects, later uncovered as former CIA and FBI agents, were â€Å"charged with attempted burglary and attempted interception of telephone and other communications† (Dickinson, Cross Polsky, 1973). Five men and two other suspects, identified as E. Howard Hunt, Jr. and Gordon Liddy, were accused by a grand jury of â€Å"conspiracy, burglary and violation of federal wiretapping laws† on September 15, 1972. It was also discovered after investigation that the suspects’ goal was to plant a bug in the office of DNC Chairman, Larry OBrien (Lewis, 1972). A multi-investigation conducted by the U. S. Congress, FBI and media revealed that the direct or indirect connection of the seven suspects to Nixons Re-election committee. Nixon initially said that his aides were not involved in the case. The cover-up was later disclosed and exposed irregularities and illegal activities of the Nixon Re-election committee. The results of the investigation concluded that the re-election committee â€Å"received covert campaign funds from big companies, played dirty tricks on Democratic candidates during the 1972 election campaign, attempted to use the FBI and other government agencies against political enemies, and set up a secret group to carry out unlawful activities against political enemies† (cited in Scholastic, 1989). In view of this, America and the world were then convinced of a conspiracy linking the President and his men. The suspects who broke into OBrien’s office and the Presidents men involved were tried and eventually convicted in 1973. The following year, the bungled break-in eventually caused Nixon his position as he resigned as the President of the United States on August 9, 1974 (Scholastic, 1989). The Washington Post Investigation The Watergate scandal was publicized by The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein through a confidential but reliable source whom they named Deep Throat. An initial headline of â€Å"Five Held in Plot to Bug Democratic Offices Here,† that appeared at the bottom of the newspapers page one on Sunday, June 18, 1972, signaled the Washington Posts investigation. The two young reporters wrote the arrest of a group of former FBI and CIA agents who â€Å"broke into, illegally wiretapped and stole classified documents from the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate office complex in Washington† (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). Bernstein and Woodward were intrigued with the details of the story and the turn of events. Citing police sources, Woodward wrote that the burglars â€Å"came from Miami, wore surgical gloves and carried thousands of dollars in cash† (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). The break-in appeared to be a professional type operation, added Woodward (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). As told by the Washington post and its reporters, the intriguing yet interesting developments of the story shook Washington for two years, resulted into the resignation of Nixon and eventually created political impacts (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). According to an online compilation of the Watergate events posted at the Washington Posts site, Woodward and Bernstein became part of the various revelatory articles that the said newspaper published. Thereafter, the succeeding Washington Post coverage of the Watergate scandal further exposed the involvement of several of the Presidents men and the ultimate link of Nixon and his campaign funds to the various crimes. The newspapers account of the scandal also ran the grand jury investigation that identified and indicted â€Å"All the Presidents Men† for their respective involvement in the crimes (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). A significant mark of the Washington Post and â€Å"Bernstein† reporting of the Watergate scandal was â€Å"Deep Throat. † A confidential source by Woodward, â€Å"Deep Throat† was identified only in 2005 or 33 years later as Mark Felt. He was the second highest-ranking FBI official who at the height of the scandal, confirmed or denied information to the two reporters and guided them to pursue specific leads (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 1,† 2008). A string of exclusives by Woodward and Bernstein and the determination of Post publisher Katherine Graham to expose the truth made the FBI finally penetrated the White House denials and the conduct of the grand jury investigation. This momentum led to the loss of job, prosecution and conviction of the involved officials of the Nixon administration and ultimately the impeachment against the President and his eventual resignation on August 8, 1974. Nixons successor, President Ford, granted the former full, free and absolute pardon one month later (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 3,† 2008). The Government Investigation The Watergate probe called for the courts, the Congress, and a special prosecutor to investigate its top-to-bottom connections to the White House. According to the same Washington Post online source, the investigation involved Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox, North Carolina Senator Sam Ervin and the FBI. Woodward and Bernstein stories reported the eventual breaking out of Nixons men from his administration and the disclosure of events that were linked to the scandal. One example was the revelation of secret tapes that further exposed Nixons involvement. The deep connection of Nixon resulted into a firestorm of firings called â€Å"the Saturday Night Massacre. † Amid impeachment against the President, he still denied accusations and stayed in his office (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 2,† 2008). The Watergate Scandal and Nixon In his book, Genovese (1999) noted that Nixon was a â€Å"complex, multidimensional figure, a man of many contradictions. † (p. 57). Genovese (1999) said that these characteristics of Nixon and the Watergate crisis were manifestations of â€Å"a period of presidential lawlessness unprecedented in American history† (p. 57). Nixon was an example of a president who initially took an oath to faithfully execute the law but eventually went beyond and broke it (Genovese, 1999, p. 69). As a result, the Watergate scandal created several questions about the American constitution and democracy (Genovese, 1999). Nixons initial show of defense rooted from the solid support of his men eventually cracked down and led to his televised resignation. During his televised speech, Nixon states, by taking this action, I hope that I will have hastened the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America. I deeply regret any injuries that may have been done in the course of the events that led to this decision. Those who hate you dont win unless you hate them, and then you destroy yourself (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 3,† 2008). Ford was sworn into office the next day but pardoned Nixon a month after. The events did not stop there as the influence of the scandal continued. The interconnecting controversies ignited a fresh and lasting doubt about American politics. It created new American political words and made the Congress approve laws concerning campaign finance reforms as well as investigation on the functions of CIA and several agencies of the government. Woodward and Bernsteins coverage was turned into a book and a hit movie entitled â€Å"All the Presidents Men† which instilled American media with a fresh harmful advantage. The scandal brought lasting and immeasurable effects on American politics (â€Å"The Watergate Story Part 3,† 2008). American Politics and Media Genovese (1999) affirmed the impression of Washington Post mentioned previously and stated that the Watergate scandal changed American politics and the issue of presidential corruption (Genovese, 1999). He added that, because of the crisis, the media became more interfering and subjective, the public became more distrustful and indifferent about its government, the relation between the executive and legislative branches of the government became unpleasant and factious and partisan conflicts became more intense (Genovese, 1999). Conclusion The Watergate crisis left profound and detrimental effects on American politics and history in general. It has resulted into distrust among the government officials and a wider gap between the branches of the government. Another effect of the scandal was that it made the succeeding Presidents more susceptible to the criticisms and suggestions of the public. The Nixon presidency has left a mark on the American politics which harmed the present list of presidents. The scandal has undeniably affected the political agenda of the succeeding presidents who were subjected to the scrutiny of the public. Nonetheless, the scandal also has its positive points to remember. These included the upholding of the freedom and power of the press as well as the effectivity of the justice system. By themselves, Nixon and the Watergate Crisis did not cause the degradation of American politics and decline of trust to the government. Incontestably, however, the fallen President and his scandal did remold the publics view of the American story from one of presumed good goals to one of outstanding hostility. References Dickinson, W. B. Mercer Cross, B. P. (1973). Watergate: Chronology of a crisis. Washington D. C: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Genovese, M. A. (1999). The Watergate Crisis.London: Greenwood Press. Lewis, A. E. (1972, June 18). 5 held in plot to bug Democrats office here. The Washington Post, A01. Retrieved from http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/05/31/AR2005111001227_pf. html Scholastic, Inc. (1989). The Case of Watergate. The Presidency, Congress, and the Supreme Court. Retrieved April 19, 2008, from Scholastic database. Sirica, J. J. (1979). To set the record straight: The Break-in, the tapes, the conspirators, the pardon. New York: Norton. The Watergate Story Part 1. (2008). The Washington Post. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1. html The Watergate Story Part 2. (2008). The Washington Post. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part2. html The Watergate Story Part 3. (2008). The Washington Post. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part3. html

Analysis Of The Porter Forces Theories Commerce Essay

Analysis Of The Porter Forces Theories Commerce Essay Porter 5 forces analysis is a business strategy development to determine competitive intensity and attractiveness of market. Porter 5 forces deals with external factors which influence the nature of competition. It is helpful to understand an organizations strength and weaknesses. Besides, it also assists to understand the current competitive position as well as to cope with competition. It consists of suppliers, customers, new entry, substitute and rivalry. Threat of substitute Analyzed that Porter theory was helping FedEx to take fair advantage of its strength as well as avoid wrong steps. Instance of case study, FedEx (1973) provided overnight products delivery and next-day delivery, it to avoid threat of substitute of post which take longer time between normal delivery. This service could satisfy customers who are time-sensitive. Besides, FedEx also used airborne delivery to replace the marine shipping in early years. Thus, FedEx updated their facilities to match todays environment. Bargaining power of suppliers In FedEx, packaging equipment suppliers and oil suppliers also have strong bargaining power because FedEx have to rely on them to package all the products for delivery services or in case of improvement of fuel prices. In case study, FedEx planned to reduce the bargaining power of suppliers, thus its invested heavily in IT development and in year 1984, PowerShip systems provided label printing, online package pick up requests, package tracking and others. It helped FedEx to save costs and to be independent on its operation. 1 Rivalry In the year 1979, FedEx used COSMOS system to manage vehicle, people, and others. This system helped FedEx to process the data on package movement to a central database. FedExs PowerShip programme also aimed to improve their operation efficiency and monitor the process. FedEx practice is to cope with rivals to decrease the high strategic stakes, high existing barriers, high fixed costs and others. FedEx is able to become the strongest in this logistic field and make more profits. *Kindly refer appendix 1 2 The Porters value chain is described as interrelationship of the value activities for the firm (Remenyi, D Remenyi, B, 2009). The value activities help to classify the operation into two categories which is technological and economical, thus the operation can be performed well. All the products and services have to pass through all the value chain activities and are evaluated by each activity. In addition, it could increase the organizations effectiveness and efficiency. Primary activities One of aspects of FedExs value chain activities is operation through 24 hours and is called Global Operations Command Centre. It was able to provide efficient gathering and spread of real-time data. According to case study, FedEx decided to restructure its internet IT infrastructure under Project GRID in year 1998. The network computers linked over a Global Internal Protocal network aimed to enhance the quality and quantity of FedExs services. This will bring FedExs operation into good control and ensure that a coherent set of actions are implemented which are consistent. Support activities FedExs value chain analysis also focused on technology development. Under Smiths leadership, the company had set a few records with breakthrough technology. Based to case study, FedEx invested heavily on IT development and promoted the globalization of commerce to generate operation efficiencies, reduce costs and improve the services. *Kindly refer appendix 2 (509 words) 3 Question 1.b FedExs success in logistic field is having strong core competencies and capabilities. The core competencies and capabilities include leadership, innovation and technologies, services, facilities and others. FedEx Corporation is having advanced technologies, which is COSMOS (Customer Oriented Services and Management Operating System). Its a global shipment tracking network based on a centralized computer system to manage vehicles, routes and weather scenarios on a real-time basis (Wit, BD Meyer, R, 2004,p.650). The advanced technology assists FedEx to improve their efficiency (speed, packaging, process, time). For example, FedEx used advanced technology system to help National Semiconductor Corp to have control over the goods sent out in shorter duration, save cost and achieve customers satisfaction. In FedEx, facilities are part of the tools to attract customers, and its aim to success. FedEx corporate served nearly 210 countries around the world; manage over 10 million square feet of warehouse space worldwide, 648 aircraft and more than 60,000 vehicles, with a staff of nearly 200,000 (Wit, BD Meyer, R, 2004, p.649). FedEx has good facilities in their operations and it is able to deliver the products to wherever the customers require and with the less time and cost. So, other competitors (GD express, Nationwide Express) didnt have ability to replace or influence FedEx market, because GD express has less facilities to compare with FedEx Corporation. *Kindly refer to appendix 3. 4 FedEx has strong leadership skills and provide proper guidance to lead the employees to be smart. Good leadership skills include good planning, good thinking and good management, good teaching and correct investment. Based on case study, Fred Smith is the chairman of FedEx Corporate. It comes out with a good plan to shorten the duration of order cycle and improve cash flow. According to Jones, PB, leadership development is helpful in an organization because it may assist the organization to limit employee turnover, increase productivity, and provide better vision to obtain great performance in the organization. FedEx Corporate focused in services area, and provides excellent quality of services to the customers. The excellent services are operating business 24 hours via internet, high speed and reliability of delivery system and responsibility. Besides, FedEx provides overnight delivery service and optional services of delivery through aircraft, ship, and truck; its quite flexible to the customers who make decision. According to case study, FedEx provide value added service which is pick up documents from customers homes and has document safety hand-held scanner. For example, the staff use hand-held scanner to make sure whether, the document is legal or illegal, and will pick it up as an order with the purpose to protect public safety. (394 words) 5 Question 1.C International trade is defined as trade between two or more countries with exchange of goods and services, that is, exports and imports. No matter which country is, the importance is to find something that can be produced cheaper than other countries (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/International_trade). One of the benefits of FedEx in international trade is enjoy economies of scale (http://www.myownbusiness.org/s13/#4). Exporting product is an excellent ways to enjoy pure economics of scale. It will increase the quantity of production and decrease the average cost of product. According to case study, FedEx operates other centers in Colorado Springs, Orlando, Singapore and Brussels to enjoy lower cost of employees and material. Next benefit for FedEx in international trade is reducing dependency on existing market, because existing market will be limited on sales and opportunity. So, FedEx going globalization might be getting more new markets and opportunity. Besides, it is less affected by fluctuations in the home countrys marketplace and economy, because their business which is spread out overseas does not fully rely on domestic market. For example, FedEx aimed to achieve business-to-consumer (B2C) electronic commerce market in the world, and reduce dependency of business-to-business (B2B) market. Another benefit is being able to be leader of logistic corporate and gain the global market share, able to control the entire market share, have power to give any suggestion and gain good reputation everywhere. FedEx in year 1998 was leader in global logistic field, and it offered the delivery services to 211 countries that comprised 90% of the worlds GDP (Wit, BD Meyer, R, 2004, p.649). 6 The disadvantage of international trade for FedEx is different culture and language, high risk, government barriers (tariffs, quotas, and embargos), it brings a lot of difficulty to FedEx to operate business. (http://www.rajputbrotherhood.com/knowledge-hub/business-studies/what-are-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-foreign-trade.html ). One of the disadvantages of FedEx in international trade is high risk, because of large investment capital in system, services, transportations and marketplace. Besides, it will bring high risk to FedEx during operation; it may lose in the first few years. For example, FedEx investments at overnight delivery system with excellent packages, but because of high invest and make losses in the first three years of operation. Disadvantage of FedEx in international trade is hosts country government policy (tariffs, quotas, and embargos). Besides, FedEx will get less profit and cannot smoothly expand their business. For example, Malaysian government will impose high tax to foreign organization during the trading; government aim is to protect domestic organization. (http://www.mida.gov.my/en_v2/index.php?page=taxation-2) The disadvantage of FedEx in international trade is facing different culture and language during the transaction. Even though, FedEx website has provided many different languages for customers to choose. But, during verbal communication its no helpful, because employees disable communication with customer. So, it will affect the organization profit and sales. For example, Japan is used own language Japanese-language. (453 words) 7 Question 2 Question 2.a Strategy Development In FedEx Corporate, strategic development helps to establish the right structure to achieve their objectives. It assists FedEx to determine the condition and position as well and use the correct steps that decide with visionary and conceptual. Strategy development and planning is upgrading the organization with intention to increase the potential of organization. One of the strategy development used by FedEx is Whittingtons perspective. Classical perspective Classical perspective is one of the strategies that classified into Whittingtons perspective. It is used at the beginning of the operation and will more secure and helpful to stabilize the future operations. In the process strategy management for classical perspective is conceived as deliberate, predetermined, planned, programmed movement from now to the future. Assuming an organization without any deliberate plan for each operation, it will have huge amount of losses for the company. It had shown the importance why an organization have to use this strategy as due to the security to the company and is helpful to save cost and time. FedEx Corporate used deliberation as a strategy because it helps to save costs and time from any wrong steps. Deliberation all plans and go through all the relevant survey, it make the corporate confident and more secure to make any decision. Based on case study, Smith was acquired to improve their transportation fleet to avoid any control by third parties, while not like other competitors to sub-contracting to third parties. 8 Evolutionary Perspective In the evolutionary perspective, an organization might become victim or banned by the market when it is over dependent on its environment. Why is this strategy important to an organization? The reason is it includes emergent, flexible, adaptation and evolution. Commonly discussed, an organization surely has to be aware of any unexpected issue, and randomize to cope with the issue or adapt it and evolve for it. An emergent strategy is the process of becoming apparent. Simultaneously, it is a pattern of action that develops over time in an organization in the absence of a specific mission and goals. (http://planningskills.com/glossary/154.php) Where there are no plans, but their behavior is still strategy. In this strategy, it is to develop a manager with no prior intention and experiences, to expose him/her to learn and piece together a consistent set of behaviors over time (Wit, BD, Meyer, R, 2004, p.113). For example, FedEx could not predict the unexpected, but shall retain enough mental freedom to cope with this as they emerge. In the case study, FedEx invested heavily on technologies development and introduced electronic data interchange (EDI) and built relationship between one-to-one with their customers. Thus, it resulted in efficiency and it is a perfect circumstance to match supply to demand without wastage. (429 words) 9 2.2 Question 2.b FedEx used these perspectives to succeed in its operations in the international market and both are helpful in efficiency and controlling the operation. Classical perspective helps FedEx to plan on the operation and operate as well as save on costs and time. Without objectives and plans, an organization would be adrift. Plans are the programming all organizational activities in advance. Classical perspective was helpful in FedEx to operate the logistic services. Evolutionary perspective is an important strategy to FedEx too. With this strategy, FedEx has solved and coped with all unexpected issues. In emergent strategy, it consists of opportunism which copes with unpredictable issues, flexibility, learn by experimentation and others. It makes sense to FedEx to operate successfully in its logistic field. Evolutionary perspective is the best choice that is preferable for FedEx. It provided significant contribution in increasing efficiency during process and operation. Evolutionary perspective was selected as best performance for survival in other markets, especially managerial labor markets, markets for capital and corporate control (Whittington R, 2001, p.16). FedEx is able to maximize the operational areas in a short period with perfect performance against their environment. Besides, this perspective does not rely on managements ability, but expect markets to secure profit maximization for the organization. It does not necessarily utilize planning methods, it rather argues to do best perform for the organizations to survive. Managers need not be rational optimizers because evolution is natures cost-benefit analyses. For Business to Consumer (B2C) areas, FedEx should do survey on customers needs and come out with a plan of promotions to match their needs and satisfy them as well. For example, FedEx also needs to match with todays event such as FIFA World Cup event, therefore, FedEx may create an attraction for those consumers who purchase FedEx delivery services more than three times and above within a week, they are provided lucky draws of free flights to South Africa to enjoy the live FIFA World Cup final show. Thus, an organization survival in a competitive environment depends on strategies of differentiation. (335 words) 10 Question 3 Processual perspective is one of the strategic management which pays attentions to. It defined as characterized by pluralism with means concerning more than one, as well as it not unitary and viewpoint are disagreeing constantly. Processual perspective is a strategy as result of process in political activity for concerned between manager and stakeholder. In Ralph Staceys integrated model, seems the issues of the connection among change context and decision making modes. Besides, it is an implication for strategic management with four loops as following: Rational loop Overt politics loop Culture and cognition loop Covert policies loop * Kindly refer to appendix 4, 5, 6 7 The rational loop According to strategic management, UOS (2004, p.157) stated Ralph Staceys integrated model, the rational loop is a classical starting point of the strategy management. It has to be unitary and everything has to be supported by strong evidence and logical argument. So, every transaction and process is fixed by organization. The processes are strictly based on discover-choose-act, an organization has to discover its position with environment and make choice for necessity, thus, act with to the final requirements. Thus, processual perspective is a strategy that influences the decision making of rational loop but there is shown low. Because every transaction and process are fixed and its needs logical argument to support with strong evidence. So, everyone could not process any transaction without the rules and regulation which are set by the organization. Even top management would not get special offers to enter the transaction. 11 For example, in the Penang Swimming Clubs rules of 40 (c), a member has to settle his/her account within 14 days from the defaulter period. If the account still remains in the unpaid status, membership will be ceased. Even the President is bound by the rules. After cessation, he has to pay RM1000.00 as deposit to reinstate his account to active status. There are no any discounts for committee or even the President of the Club. All the procedures are set by clubs rules, and all members have to follow it strictly with no short-cut procedures. * Kindly refer to appendix 8 The overt politics loop Based on strategic management, UOS (2004, p.157) stated this loop shows reality and overt to the organization resources as well. Nevertheless, the resources in an organization might be limited and possibly inadequate. Therefore, the implementation option in stage of choice, which courses of action, possibly can threaten and subvert the organizations current environment. Besides, some will use their power to bargain with each other to get the resources in the organization to achieve their goals. Processual perspective is acceptable in overt politics loop because there is limit and scarcity of resources. It could give rise to conflicts and make environments challenging each other. So, each department will come to challenge the decision making of the organization with a purpose to obtain the resources prefer to. They could to use different methods to get the resources from the organization, however, use their power to obtain from the organization. For example, in Sime Darby Corporation, those facing financial instability and limitation of capital because of economic crisis in year 2008, each departments proposal to obtain the limited resources, could make the organization get into confusion of decision. Processual perspective is helpful in this situation and to assess every proposal with requirements in details. It makes a difference to an organization to decide where the resources are supposed to go and might make a loss if there are any wrong decisions, due to limited resources. 12 The culture and cognition loop In culture and cognition loop, its to sustain unitary organization in its shared mental of model. As long as everyone is having same organizations thinking and culture, it will bring the organization to be peace and stable. In culture and cognition loop, its depends on the organizations employee culture whether is unitary of non-unitary. Once the organizations employees thinking are not unitary, the processual perspective will shown high, with occur issues or conflict between each other during meeting or propose the ideas to the management. So, processual perspective is acceptable to reduce the conflicts and analyze the problems, thus management able to solve it with better ways. In this loop, the organization needs to provide relevant training and development courses to help the employees become more cooperation attitude and have similar thinking and knowledge as well. Because, when the employees are having equal knowledge for their performance tasks, it will be unitary in their ideas and conflicts will be reducing naturally. Covert Politics loop Based on strategic management, UOS (2004, p 160) stated this section is regarding the psychology of an individual who respond to contradiction and conflict. Obviously, majority of individuals are afraid to something new as they feel threatened to go out of their current environment and situations. Some people fear failure and challenges. Even refuse the new reality once they have lost their confidence for it. 13 Assume as an example in the tailoring industry, the manager planned to replace the entire old machines with new and high technology machines. Some new staff feels good to learn new things, but some old staff would disagree with this because they fear the challenge of new technology. Thus, management could apply processual perspective to estimate and evaluate the issues of the disputation. With processual perspective, it has shown there is high of processual perspective because it had influenced management to manage the old staff with these new machines. Finally, management made the final decision that they should have leader who is able to cope with challenges and is willing to learn. This leader has to guide all staff, especially old staff to train with new machines. Therefore, a leader is must be able to reduce their anxiety and lead to pluralism in an organization. (904 words) 14 LIST OF REFERENCING Electronic Publications Anon, 2007, Emergent Strategy, viewed 29 June 2010 Anon, 2008, Malaysian Industrial Development Authority, viewed 29 June 2009 . Anon, 2009, Porters Five Forces Model, viewed 18 June 2010 Anon, no date, International Trade-Definition, viewed 20 June 2010 . Anon, no date, My Own Business: Advantage and Disadvantage of International Trade, viewed 21 June2010 . Anon, no date, Planning Skills, viewed 24 June 2010 . Anon, no date, GDEX, viewed 24 June 2010 Jones, PB 2008, Five Benefits of Leadership Development For Your Organization, viewed 27 June 2010, Morrison, D, no date, Product Management and Value Chain Analysis, viewed 19 June 2010 Palekar, A no date, Rajput Brotherhood, viewed 27 June 2010 . 15 Book Penang Swimming Club, 2007, Penang Swimming Club Rules, Georgetown Penang, Malaysia. Strategic Management (2004), 2nd version. The University of Sunderland Whittington, R, 2001, What is Strategy- and does it matter?, 2nd edition, Thomas Rennie, London. Wit, BD, Meyer, R. 2004. Strategy: Process, Content, Context. 3rd ed. West Publishing Company. E-book Remenyi, D Remenyi, B. (2009) How TO Prepare Business Cases. [e-book]. Elsevier Ltd, Burlington USA. Available from: http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falsepg=PT119HYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falsedq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelHYPERLIN K http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falsehl=enHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf= falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falsesa=XHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseoi=book_resultHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf =falsect=resultHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseresnum=8HYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ve d=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseqHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com.my/books?id=9rH_SZ6NJsgCpg=PT119dq=michael+porter+5+forces+modelhl=enei=vPcrTKXDAY-TkAXC1eWYCwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=8ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageqf=falsef=false [Accessed 14 June 2010]. 16 Appendix 1 Porter 5 Forces analysis Sources : http://notesdesk.com/notes/strategy/porters-five-forces-model-porters-model/ 17 Appendix 2 Porters Value Chain Sources : http://allaboutproductmanagement.blogspot.com/2007/04/michael-porters-value-chain-analysis-is.html 18 Appendix 3 Competitor of FedEx Corporation GD Express Sdn Bhd (GDex) was formed in 1997 to provide express delivery service for both the domestic and international markets. It operates a network of 96 stations, comprising 53 branches, 2 affiliate stations and 41 agents throughout East and West Malaysia. GDex has a fleet of more than 280 trucks and vans used primarily for hauling of documents and parcels between stations and the National Hub (termed line-haul fleet) for local pick-ups and deliveries. The companys express delivery service operations are structured along the principles of the Hub and Spoke concept whereby customers packages are collected by the branches, sent by trucks to a Central Clearing Hub for sorting and then redirected to their ultimate destinations. The group currently employs more than 1300 staff. GDex is the first local express delivery company to obtain ISO 9001: 2000 (Quality Management System) certification for all its entire 25 departments in 2003. In November 2009, GDex upgraded its (Quality Management System) to ISO 9001: 2008. In its quest to be a world class service provider, the company has embarked on a world class excellence training programme called the Prime Minister Quality Award programme (PMQA) to equip its employees for world class performance in express carrier service and operations. GDex is listed on the Mesdaq market of Bursa Malaysia through its holding company GD Express Carrier Bhd in May 2005. Sources: http://www.gdexpress.com/history.php 19 Appendix 4 Rational Loop Sources : Strategic Management (2004), 2nd version. The University of Sunderland 20 Appendix 5 Overt Politics Loop Sources : Strategic Management (2004), 2nd version. The University of Sunderland 21 Appendix 6 Culture Cognition Loop Sources : Strategic Management (2004), 2nd version. The University of Sunderland 22 Appendix 7 Cover Politics Loop Sources : Strategic Management (2004), 2nd version. The University of Sunderland 23

Chaos in Art and Literature :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Chaos in Art and Literature      Ã‚  Ã‚   Abstract:   The following paper deals with the expanding world of the new science of chaos. Chaos is unique because it can be applied to all the core sciences, and more importantly it can be applied to subjects not considered to be science. The paper below deals with the evidence of chaos in literature and art, and how it functions in this world. While many aspects of the chaos present in art and literature are different from the science of chaos, some similarities still emerged and can be seen when examined closely. Chaos was found to be especially evident in the works of W.B. Yeats, John Milton, Wallace Stevens, William Blake, Jackson Pollock, and in the works of those involved in the Futurist Movement.    Chaos is a word with many applications. It has been used to describe situations that lack order, and at the same time it has been used to describe underlying mechanisms of the core sciences. Interestingly enough, chaos now can be found in other realms of the scholarly world, most notably in art and literature. By examining the literature of William Blake, W.B. Yeats, John Milton, and Wallace Stevens, and the art of the futurist movement and of Jackson Pollock chaos can be found as can its connection to the more scientific world.    The chaos found in literature is not something too entirely modern. In fact one of the first examples of chaos in literature according to Ala'a H. Fawad was found in William Blake's poem "Auguries of Innocence." The poem describes how a world can exist as a microcosm in a our world in a grain of sand and how the world Blake lives in could perhaps be a grain of sand in another world. Fawad insists that this poem sums up the idea of chaos: the science that "describes the cosmos at both extremes." Those extremes according to him were the largeness associated with the theory of relativity and the smallness associated with quantum physics (Fawad's Chaos on the World Wide Web).    Chaos, though, has also been found in more recent works such as in the poems of William Butler Yeats. This Irish poet who won the Nobel Prize in literature is known for his nationalistic poetry that celebrates Ireland as well as its culture and folklore. More importantly, though, Yeats was interested in philosophy.

The Importance of the Ozone :: essays research papers fc

The Importance of the Ozone â€Å"Like an infection that grows more and more virulent, the continent-size hole in Earth’s ozone layer keeps getting bigger and bigger†(Beyond Discovery). The ozone is a protective layer that occurs naturally in the stratosphere, 6 to 28 miles in altitude. Each year, since the late 1970’s, much of the ozone layer above Antarctica has disappeared, creating what is popularly known as the â€Å"ozone hole.† This hole now measures about 9 million square miles, nearly the size of North America. Less dramatic, but still significant, depletion of ozone levels has been recorded around the globe. With less ozone in the atmosphere, more ultraviolet radiation strikes Earth, causing more skin cancer, eye damage, and possible harm to crops.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main causes of ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), such as coolants, aerosols, and fire extinguishers. When CFC’s are released, they rise into the ozone layer. The UV (ultraviolet) radiation then releases chlorine from the CFC’s. Chlorine is a chemical that disintegrates the ozone. Other everyday items that contribute Cottrell 2 to the devastation of the ozone include household refrigerants and exhaust fumes emitted from automobiles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Without the ozone layer the health of every single living being on planet Earth would be jeopardized. Ozone depletion leads to an increased exposure to ultraviolet light, which can cause many health problems. Exposure to ultraviolet light greatly increases the risks of skin cancer and cataract development. Skin cancers are very treatable in their early stages but very deadly in the advanced stages. Cataracts are growths in the eyes that cloud vision and can lead to blindness. Increased UV exposure also causes decreased growth of phytoplankton. This is the light-sensitive organism that not only forms the base of the ocean’s food web, but also is responsible for removing much of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Last, a thinning ozone layer would produce lower crop yields. Some crops, such as rice, are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Increased UV exposure could make these crops less productive or even kill them. Much of the world relies on rice as a pri mary source of food.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people who need it most are destroying the ozone layer. This problem can be traced back to the overwhelming increase in the world’s population. With more people on the planet, there will be use of more automobiles, CFC’s, and refrigerants. In turn, an increase in these products will yield an increase in air pollution.

Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays

Manor Animal Farm   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agenda for the animals in the movie Manor Animals Farm was to be free and to role themselves. They set a list of goal or rules that every animal had to follow. The leader pig got all the animals excited and committed in the goals that were set. The animals called a meeting so that the rules could be made and made official. They all came together to brainstorm ideas about the laws that the pig listed. These steps were taken in the farm to select the rules first before enforcing them. This is the first step to planning an agenda.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Planning the agenda requires understanding what each members need to accomplish by the end of the meeting. The plan has to be straight forward as possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agenda of the animals was that they could not be like humans in any way for form. They will not dress or sleep in beds because that is being human.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The changes that occurred in the farm was that the law changed because of the leadership changed. A new pig with Cruz 2 a different image controlled the animals now. The new pig had new ideas and made the animals feed into what he was dreaming. The new leader made the other pigs believe in something that way not legal in the laws that they lived by before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new leader pig started add and changing the words of the rules. He used the law to help him get into power and make the other animals trust him. The pig manipulated the law to his favor so the animals could make him the new leader and so that his ideas could be acted out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new leader changed a little of the rule that the old great leader put into writing. The changes confused the animals and questioned the new law. This change altered the agenda of the farm and made the pigs more into humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The climate of the first meeting was really positive. The animals were listening and singing songs because they were proud of their leader and his thoughts. The animals listen and expected the idea of the first leader because it affected them more then anything. There was no secret plans or anything. The leader helped the animals and that is what they liked about him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cruz3 The animals in the movie were singing and listing ever carefully. They all participated in the meeting in one way or form. Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays Manor Animal Farm   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agenda for the animals in the movie Manor Animals Farm was to be free and to role themselves. They set a list of goal or rules that every animal had to follow. The leader pig got all the animals excited and committed in the goals that were set. The animals called a meeting so that the rules could be made and made official. They all came together to brainstorm ideas about the laws that the pig listed. These steps were taken in the farm to select the rules first before enforcing them. This is the first step to planning an agenda.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Planning the agenda requires understanding what each members need to accomplish by the end of the meeting. The plan has to be straight forward as possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agenda of the animals was that they could not be like humans in any way for form. They will not dress or sleep in beds because that is being human.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The changes that occurred in the farm was that the law changed because of the leadership changed. A new pig with Cruz 2 a different image controlled the animals now. The new pig had new ideas and made the animals feed into what he was dreaming. The new leader made the other pigs believe in something that way not legal in the laws that they lived by before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new leader pig started add and changing the words of the rules. He used the law to help him get into power and make the other animals trust him. The pig manipulated the law to his favor so the animals could make him the new leader and so that his ideas could be acted out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new leader changed a little of the rule that the old great leader put into writing. The changes confused the animals and questioned the new law. This change altered the agenda of the farm and made the pigs more into humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The climate of the first meeting was really positive. The animals were listening and singing songs because they were proud of their leader and his thoughts. The animals listen and expected the idea of the first leader because it affected them more then anything. There was no secret plans or anything. The leader helped the animals and that is what they liked about him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cruz3 The animals in the movie were singing and listing ever carefully. They all participated in the meeting in one way or form.

Negotiation and Dispute Resolution

CHAPTER ONE The Nature of Negotiation 4-2 Introduction Negotiation is something that everyone does, almost daily 4-3 Negotiations Negotiations occur for several reasons: †¢ To agree on how to share or divide a limited resource †¢ To create something new that neither party could attain on his or her own †¢ To resolve a problem or dispute between the parties 4-4 Approach to the Subject Most people think bargaining and negotiation mean the same thing; however, we will be distinctive about the way we use these two words: †¢ Bargaining: describes the competitive, win-lose situation †¢ Negotiation: refers to win-win situations such as hose that occur when parties try to find a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict 4-5 Three Important Themes 1. The definition of negotiation and the basic characteristics of negotiation situations 2. Interdependence, the relationship between people and groups that most often leads them to negotiate 3. Understanding the dy namics of conflict and conflict management processes which serve as a backdrop for different ways that people approach and manage negotiations 4-6 Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation †¢ There are two or more parties †¢ There is a conflict of needs and desires between two or more parties Parties negotiate because they think they can get a better deal than by simply accepting what the other side offers them †¢ Parties expect a â€Å"give-and-take† process 4-7 Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation †¢ Parties search for agreement rather than: – – – – Fight openly Capitulate Break off contact permanently Take their dispute to a third party †¢ Successful negotiation involves: – Management of tangibles (e. g. , the price or the terms of agreement) – Resolution of intangibles (the underlying psychological motivations) such as winning, losing, saving face 4-8 Interdependence In negotiation, parties need eac h other to achieve heir preferred outcomes or objectives †¢ This mutual dependency is called interdependence †¢ Interdependent goals are an important aspect of negotiation †¢ Win-lose: I win, you lose †¢ Win-win: Opportunities for both parties to gain 4-9 Interdependence †¢ Interdependent parties are characterized by interlocking goals †¢ Having interdependent goals does not mean that everyone wants or needs exactly the same thing †¢ A mix of convergent and conflicting goals characterizes many interdependent relationships 4-10 Types of Interdependence Affect Outcomes †¢ Interdependence and the structure of the situation hape processes and outcomes – Zero-sum or distributive – one winner – Non-zero-sum or integrative – a mutual gains situation 4-11 Alternatives Shape Interdependence †¢ Evaluating interdependence depends heavily on the alternatives to working together †¢ The desirability to work together is better for outcomes †¢ Best available alternative: BATNA (acronym for Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) 4-12 Mutual Adjustment †¢ Continues throughout the negotiation as both parties act to influence the other †¢ One of the key causes of the changes that occur during a negotiation †¢ The effective negotiator needs to understand how eople will adjust and readjust and how the negotiations might twist and turn, based on one’s own moves and the other’s responses 4-13 Mutual Adjustment and Concession Making †¢ When one party agrees to make a change in his/her position, a concession has been made †¢ Concessions restrict the range of options †¢ When a concession is made, the bargaining range is further constrained 4-14 Two Dilemmas in Mutual Adjustment †¢ Dilemma of honesty – Concern about how much of the truth to tell the other party †¢ Dilemma of trust – Concern about how much should negotiators believe wh at the other party tells them 4-15Value Claiming and Value Creation †¢ Opportunities to â€Å"win† or share resources – Claiming value: result of zero-sum or distributive situations where the object is to gain largest piece of resource – Creating value: result of non-zero-sum or integrative situation where the object is to have both parties do well 4-16 Value Claiming and Value Creation †¢ Most actual negotiations are a combination of claiming and creating value processes – Negotiators must be able to recognize situations that require more of one approach than the other – Negotiators must be versatile in their comfort and use of both major strategic approaches Negotiator perceptions of situations tend to be biased toward seeing problems as more distributive/competitive than they really are 4-17 Value Claiming and Value Creation Value differences that exist between negotiators include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Differences in interes t Differences in judgments about the future Differences in risk tolerance Differences in time preferences 4-18 Conflict Conflict may be defined as a: â€Å"sharp disagreement or opposition† and includes â€Å"the perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that the parties' current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously† 4-19 Levels of Conflict Intrapersonal or intrapsychic conflict – Conflict that occurs within an individual †¢ We want an ice cream cone badly, but we know that ice cream is very fattening †¢ Interpersonal conflict – Conflict is between individuals †¢ Conflict between bosses and subordinates, spouses, siblings, roommates, etc. 4-20 Levels of Conflict †¢ Intragroup Conflict – Conflict is within a group †¢ Among team and committee members, within families, classes etc. †¢ Intergroup Conflict – Conflict can occur between organizations, warring nations, feuding families, or within splintered , fragmented communities – These negotiations are the most complex -21 Dysfunctions of Conflict 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Competitive, win-lose goals Misperception and bias Emotionality Decreased communication Blurred issues Rigid commitments Magnified differences, minimized similarities Escalation of conflict 4-22 Functions and Benefits of Conflict 1. Makes organizational members more aware and able to cope with problems through discussion. 2. Promises organizational change and adaptation. 3. Strengthens relationships and heightens morale. 4. Promotes awareness of self and others. 5. Enhances personal development. 6. Encourages psychological development—it helps eople become more accurate and realistic in their self-appraisals. 7. Can be stimulating and fun. 4-23 The Dual Concerns Model 4-24 Styles of Conflict Management 1. Contending – Actors pursue own outcomes strongly, show little concern for other party obtaining their desired outcomes 2. Yielding – A ctors show little interest in whether they attain own outcomes, but are quite interested in whether the other party attains their outcomes 3. Inaction – Actors show little interest in whether they attain own outcomes, and little concern about whether the other party obtains their outcomes 4-25 Styles of Conflict Management . Problem solving – Actors show high concern in obtaining own outcomes, as well as high concern for the other party obtaining their outcomes 5. Compromising – Actors show moderate concern in obtaining own outcomes, as well as moderate concern for the other party obtaining their outcomes CHAPTER TWO Strategy and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining 4-27 Three Reasons Negotiators Should Be Familiar with Distributive Bargaining 1. Independent situations require knowing how this works in order to do well 2. Need to know how to counter the effects of the strategies 3. Every situation has the potential to require kills at the â€Å"claiming-valueâ₠¬  stage 4-28 The Distributive Bargaining Situation †¢ Goals of one party are in fundamental,direct conflict to another party †¢ Resources are fixed and limited †¢ Maximizing one’s own share of resources is the goal for both parties 4-29 The Distributive Bargaining Situation Situation includes: †¢ Starting points (initial offers) †¢ Target points †¢ Resistance points (walkaway) †¢ Alternative outcomes 4-30 The Distributive Bargaining Situation Party A – Seller Walkaway Point Initial Offer Party B – Buyer Target Point Target Point Asking Price Walkaway Point 4-31 The Role of Alternatives to aNegotiated Agreement †¢ Alternatives give the negotiator power to walk away from the negotiation – If alternatives are attractive, negotiators can: †¢ Set their goals higher †¢ Make fewer concessions – If there are no attractive alternatives: †¢ Negotiators have much less bargaining power 4-32 The Distribut ive Bargaining Situation Party A – Seller Walkaway Point Target Point Alternative Initial Offer Party B – Buyer Asking Price Alternative Target Point Walkaway Point 4-33 Fundamental Strategies †¢ Push for settlement near opponent’s resistance point †¢ Get the other party to change their resistance point If settlement range is negative, either: – Get the other side to change their resistance point – Modify your own resistance point †¢ Convince the other party that the settlement is the best possible 4-34 Keys to the Strategies The keys to implementing any of the four strategies are: †¢ Discovering the other party’s resistance point †¢ Influencing the other party’s resistance point 4-35 Tactical Tasks of Negotiators †¢ Assess outcome values and the costs of termination for the other party †¢ Manage the other party’s impressions †¢ Modify the other party’s perceptions †¢ Manipula te the actual costs of delay or termination 4-36Assess the Other Party’s Target, Resistance Point, and Costs of Terminating Negotiations †¢ Indirectly – Determine information opponent used to set: †¢ Target †¢ Resistance points †¢ Directly – Opponent reveals the information 4-37 Manage the Other Party’s Impressions †¢ Screen your behavior: – Say and do as little as possible †¢ Direct action to alter impressions – Present facts that enhance one’s position 4-38 Modify the Other Party’s Perceptions †¢ Make outcomes appear less attractive †¢ Make the cost of obtaining goals appear higher †¢ Make demands and positions appear more or less attractive to the other party – whichever uits your needs 4-39 Manipulate the Actual Costs of Delay or Termination †¢ Plan disruptive action – Raise the costs of delay to the other party †¢ Form an alliance with outsiders – Involve (or threaten to involve) other parties who can influence the outcome in your favor †¢ Schedule manipulations – One party is usually more vulnerable to delaying than the other 4-40 Positions Taken During Negotiations †¢ Opening offers – Where will you start? †¢ Opening stance – What is your attitude? †¢ Competitive? Moderate? †¢ Initial concessions – Should any be made? If so, how large? 4-41 Positions Taken During Negotiations The role of concessions – Without them, there is either capitulation or deadlock †¢ Patterns of concession making – The pattern contains valuable information †¢ Final offers (making a commitment) – â€Å"This is all I can do† 4-42 Commitments: Tactical Considerations †¢ Establishing a commitment – Three properties: †¢ Finality †¢ Specificity †¢ Consequences †¢ Preventing the other party from committing prematurely – Their co mmitment reduces your flexibility 4-43 Ways to Create a Commitment †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Public pronouncement Linking with an outside base Increase the prominence of demands Reinforce the threat or promise 4-44 Commitments:Tactical Considerations †¢ Ways to abandon a committed position – – – – Plan a way out Let it die silently Restate the commitment in more general terms Minimize the damage to the relationship if the other backs off 4-45 Closing the Deal †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Provide alternatives (2 or 3 packages) Assume the close Split the difference Exploding offers Deal sweeteners 4-46 Dealing with Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ Four main options: – Ignore them – Discuss them – Respond in kind – Co-opt the other party (befriend them) 4-47 Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ Good Cop/Bad Cop †¢ Lowball/Highball †¢ Bogey (playing up an issue of little importance) The Nibble (asking fo r a number of small concessions to) 4-48 Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Chicken Intimidation Aggressive Behavior Snow Job (overwhelm the other party with information) 4-49 Summary Negotiators need to: †¢ Set a clear target and resistance points †¢ Understand and work to improve their BATNA †¢ Start with good opening offer †¢ Make appropriate concessions †¢ Manage the commitment process CHAPTER THREE Strategy and Tactics of Integrative Negotiation 4-51 What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different? †¢ Focus on commonalties rather than differences †¢ Address needs and interests, not positions Commit to meeting the needs of all involved parties †¢ Exchange information and ideas †¢ Invent options for mutual gain †¢ Use objective criteria to set standards 4-52 Overview of the Integrative Negotiation Process †¢ Create a free flow of information †¢ Attempt to understand the other negotiator’s real n eeds and objectives †¢ Emphasize the commonalties between the parties and minimize the differences †¢ Search for solutions that meet the goals and objectives of both sides 4-53 Key Steps in the Integrative Negotiation Process †¢ Identify and define the problem †¢ Understand the problem fully – identify interests and needs on both sides Generate alternative solutions †¢ Evaluate and select among alternatives 4-54 Claiming and Creating Value 4-55 Identify and Define the Problem †¢ Define the problem in a way that is mutually acceptable to both sides †¢ State the problem with an eye toward practicality and comprehensiveness †¢ State the problem as a goal and identify the obstacles in attaining this goal †¢ Depersonalize the problem †¢ Separate the problem definition from the search for solutions 4-56 Understand the Problem Fully— Identify Interests and Needs †¢ Interests: the underlying concerns, needs, desires, or fe ars that motivate a negotiator Substantive interests relate to key issues in the negotiation – Process interests are related to the way the dispute is settled – Relationship interests indicate that one or both parties value their relationship – Interests in principle: doing what is fair, right, acceptable, ethical may be shared by the parties 4-57 Observations on Interests †¢ There is almost always more than one †¢ Parties can have different interests at stake †¢ Often stem from deeply rooted human needs or values †¢ Can change †¢ Numerous ways to surface interests †¢ Surfacing interests is not always easy or to one’s best advantage 4-58Generate Alternative Solutions †¢ Invent options by redefining the problem set: – – – – – – – – Compromise Logroll Modify the pie Expand the pie Find a bridge solution Cut the costs for compliance Non specific compensation Subordinat ion †¢ Generate options to the problem as a given: – Brainstorming – Surveys – Electronic brainstorming 4-59 Evaluate and Select Alternatives †¢ Narrow the range of solution options †¢ Evaluate solutions on: – Quality – Objective standards – Acceptability †¢ Agree to evaluation criteria in advance †¢ Be willing to justify personal preferences †¢ Be alert to the influence of intangibles in selecting options Use subgroups to evaluate complex options 4-60 Evaluate and Select Alternatives †¢ Take time to â€Å"cool off† †¢ Explore different ways to logroll †¢ Exploit differences in expectations and risk/time preferences †¢ Keep decisions tentative and conditional until a final proposal is complete †¢ Minimize formality, record keeping until final agreements are closed 4-61 Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation †¢ Some common objective or goal †¢ Faith in one’s own problem-solving ability †¢ A belief in the validity of one’s own position and the other’s perspective †¢ The motivation and commitment to work together -62 Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation †¢ Trust †¢ Clear and accurate communication †¢ An understanding of the dynamics of integrative negotiation CHAPTER FOUR Negotiation: Strategy and Planning 4-64 Goals – The Focus That Drives Negotiation Strategy †¢ Determining goals is the first step in the negotiation process †¢ Negotiators should specify goals and objectives clearly †¢ The goals set have direct and indirect effects on the negotiator’s strategy 4-65 The Direct and Indirect Effects of Goals on Strategy †¢ Direct effects – – – – Wishes are not goals Goals are often linked to the other party’s goalsThere are limits to what goals can be Effective goals must be concrete/specific †¢ Indirect effects – Forging an ongoing relationship 4-66 Strategy versus Tactics †¢ Strategy: The overall plan to achieve one’s goals in a negotiation †¢ Tactics: Short-term, adaptive moves designed to enact or pursue broad strategies – Tactics are subordinate to strategy – Tactics are driven by strategy †¢ Planning: The â€Å"action† component of the strategy process; i. e. how will I implement the strategy? 4-67 Approaches to Strategy †¢ Unilateral: One that is made without active involvement of the other party Bilateral: One that considers the impact of the other’s strategy on one’s own 4-68 The Dual Concerns Model Avoidance: Don’t negotiate Competition: I gain, ignore relationship Collaboration: I gain, you gain, enhance relationship Accommodation: I let you win, enhance relationship 4-69 Strategic Options †¢ Per the Dual Concerns Model, choice of strategy is reflected in the answers to two questio ns: – How much concern do I have in achieving my desired outcomes at stake in the negotiation? – How much concern do I have for the current and future quality of the relationship with the other party? 4-70 The Nonengagement Strategy:Avoidance †¢ If one is able to meet one’s needs without negotiating at all, it may make sense to use an avoidance strategy †¢ It simply may not be worth the time and effort to negotiate †¢ The decision to negotiate is closely related to the desirability of available alternatives 4-71 Active-Engagement Strategies †¢ Competition – distributive, win-lose bargaining †¢ Collaboration – integrative, win-win negotiation †¢ Accommodation – involves an imbalance of outcomes (â€Å"I lose, you win†) 4-72 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process 4-73 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process †¢ Preparation – What are the goals? How will I work with the other party? †¢ R elationship building – Understanding differences and similarities – Building commitment toward a mutually beneficial set of outcomes †¢ Information gathering – Learn what you need to know about the issues 4-74 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process †¢ Information using – Assemble your case †¢ Bidding – Each party states their â€Å"opening offer† – Each party engages in â€Å"give and take† †¢ Closing the deal – Build commitment †¢ Implementing the agreement 4-75 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Define the issues †¢ Assemble the issues and define the bargaining ix – The bargaining mix is the combined list of issues †¢ Define your interests – Why you want what you want 4-76 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Know your limits and alternatives †¢ Set your objectives (targets) and opening bids (whe re to start) – Target is the outcome realistically expected – Opening is the best that can be achieved †¢ Assess constituents and the social context of the negotiation 4-77 The Social Context of Negotiation: â€Å"Field† Analysis 4-78 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Analyze the other party – Why do they want what they want? How can I present my case clearly and refute the other party’s arguments? †¢ Present the issues to the other party 4-79 Information Needed to Prepare Effectively for Engaging the Other Party †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Resources, issues, and bargaining mix Interests and needs Walkaway point and alternative(s) Targets and opening bids Constituents, social structure, and authority to make an agreement †¢ Reputation and negotiation style †¢ Likely strategy and tactics 4-80 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Define the protocol t o be followed in the negotiation – – – – – – – What is the agenda? Who will be there?Where will the negotiation occur? What is the time period? What might be done if the negotiation fails? How will we keep track of what is agreed to? How do we know whether we have a good agreement? 4-81 Summary on the Planning Process â€Å"†¦ planning is the most critically important activity in negotiation. † CHAPTER FIVE Perception, Cognition, and Emotion 4-83 Perception, Cognition, and Emotion in Negotiation The basic building blocks of all social encounters are: †¢ Perception †¢ Cognition – Framing – Cognitive biases †¢ Emotion 4-84 Perception Perception is: †¢ The process by which individuals connect to their environment. A â€Å"sense-making† process 4-85 The Process of Perception The process of ascribing meaning to messages and events is strongly influenced by the perceiver’s current state of mind, role, and comprehension of earlier communications People interpret their environment in order to respond appropriately The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of the information People develop â€Å"shortcuts† to process information and these â€Å"shortcuts† can create perceptual errors 4-86 Perceptual Distortion †¢ Four major perceptual errors: – Stereotyping – Halo effects – Selective perception – Projection 4-87Stereotyping and Halo Effects †¢ Stereotyping: – Is a very common distortion – Occurs when an individual assigns attributes to another solely on the basis of the other’s membership in a particular social or demographic category †¢ Halo effects: – Are similar to stereotypes – Occur when an individual generalizes about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual 4-88 Selective Perception and Projection â₠¬ ¢ Selective perception: – Perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects – The perceiver singles out information that supports a prior belief but filters out contrary information †¢ Projection: Arises out of a need to protect one’s own self-concept – People assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves 4-89 Framing †¢ Frames: – Represent the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations – Lead people to pursue or avoid subsequent actions – Focus, shape and organize the world around us – Make sense of complex realities – Define a person, event or process – Impart meaning and significance 4-90 Types of Frames †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Substantive Outcome Aspiration Process Identity Characterization Loss-Gain 4-91 How Frames Work in Negotiation Negotiators can use more than one frame †¢ Mismatches in frames b etween parties are sources of conflict †¢ Parties negotiate differently depending on the frame †¢ Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues †¢ Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements †¢ Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of various factors 4-92 Interests, Rights, and Power Parties in conflict use one of three frames: †¢ Interests: people talk about their â€Å"positions† but often what is at stake is their underlying interests †¢ Rights: people may be concerned about who is right† – that is, who has legitimacy, who is correct, and what is fair †¢ Power: people may wish to resolve a conflict on the basis of who is stronger 4-93 The Frame of an Issue Changes as the Negotiation Evolves †¢ Negotiators tend to argue for stock issues or concerns that are raised every time the parties negotiate †¢ Each party attempts to make the best possible case for his or her preferred position or perspective †¢ Frames may define major shifts and transitions in a complex overall negotiation †¢ Multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development 4-94 Some Advice about Problem Framing for Negotiators Frames shape what the parties define as the key issues and how they talk about them †¢ Both parties have frames †¢ Frames are controllable, at least to some degree †¢ Conversations change and transform frames in ways negotiators may not be able to predict but may be able to control †¢ Certain frames are more likely than others to lead to certain types of processes and outcomes 4-95 Cognitive Biases in Negotiation †¢ Negotiators have a tendency to make systematic errors when they process information. These errors, collectively labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede negotiator performance. 4-96 Cognitive Biases †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Irrational escalation of commitment Mythical fixed-pie be liefs Anchoring and adjustment Issue framing and risk Availability of information †¢ The winner’s curse †¢ Overconfidence †¢ The law of small numbers †¢ Self-serving biases †¢ Endowment effect †¢ Ignoring others’ cognitions †¢ Reactive devaluation 4-97 Irrational Escalation of Commitment and Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs †¢ Irrational escalation of commitment – Negotiators maintain commitment to a course of action even when that commitment constitutes irrational behavior †¢ Mythical fixed-pie beliefs – Negotiators assume that all negotiations (not just some) involve a fixed pie 4-98Anchoring and Adjustment and Issue Framing and Risk †¢ Anchoring and adjustment – The effect of the standard (anchor) against which subsequent adjustments (gains or losses) are measured – The anchor might be based on faulty or incomplete information, thus be misleading †¢ Issue framing and risk – Frames ca n lead people to seek, avoid, or be neutral about risk in decision making and negotiation 4-99 Availability of Information and the Winner’s Curse †¢ Availability of information – Operates when information that is presented in vivid or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall. – Becomes central and critical in evaluating events and ptions †¢ The winner’s curse – The tendency to settle quickly on an item and then subsequently feel discomfort about a win that comes too easily 4-100 Overconfidence and the Law of Small Numbers †¢ Overconfidence – The tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true †¢ The law of small numbers – The tendency of people to draw conclusions from small sample sizes – The smaller sample, the greater the possibility that past lessons will be erroneously used to infer what will happen in the future 4-101 Self-Serving Bi ases and Endowment Effect †¢ Self-serving biases People often explain another person’s behavior by making attributions, either to the person or to the situation – There is a tendency to: †¢ Overestimate the role of personal or internal factors †¢ Underestimate the role of situational or external factors †¢ Endowment effect – The tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess 4-102 Ignoring Others’ Cognitions and Reactive Devaluation †¢ Ignoring others’ cognitions – Negotiators don’t bother to ask about the other party’s perceptions and thoughts – This leaves them to work with incomplete information, and thus produces faulty results †¢ Reactive devaluation The process of devaluing the other party’s concessions simply because the other party made them 4-103 Managing Misperceptions and Cognitive Biases in Negotiation The best advice that negotiators can follow is: †¢ Be aware of the negative aspects of these biases †¢ Discuss them in a structured manner within the team and with counterparts 4-104 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ The distinction between mood and emotion is based on three characteristics: – Specificity – Intensity – Duration 4-105 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Negotiations create both positive and negative emotions †¢ Positive emotions generally have positive onsequences for negotiations – They are more likely to lead the parties toward more integrative processes – They create a positive attitude toward the other side – They promote persistence 4-106 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to positive emotions – Positive feelings result from fair procedures during negotiation – Positive feelings result from favorable social comparison 4-107 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Negative emotions generally h ave negative consequences for negotiations – They may lead parties to define the situation as competitive or distributive They may undermine a negotiator’s ability to analyze the situation accurately, which adversely affects individual outcomes – They may lead parties to escalate the conflict – They may lead parties to retaliate and may thwart integrative outcomes – Not all negative emotion has the same effect 4-108 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to negative emotions – Negative emotions may result from a competitive mind-set – Negative emotions may result from an impasse – Negative emotions may result from the prospect of beginning a negotiation †¢ Effects of positive and negative emotion Positive feelings may generate negative outcomes – Negative feelings may elicit beneficial outcomes †¢ Emotions can be used strategically as negotiation gambits CHAPTER SIX C ommunication 4-110 Communication in Negotiation Communication processes, both verbal and nonverbal, are critical to achieving negotiation goals and to resolving conflicts. 4-111 What is Communicated during Negotiation? †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Offers, counteroffers, and motives Information about alternatives Information about outcomes Social accounts – Explanations of mitigating circumstances – Explanations of exonerating circumstances Reframing explanations †¢ Communication about process 4-112 Communication in Negotiation: Three Key Questions †¢ Are negotiators consistent or adaptive? – Many negotiators prefer sticking with the familiar rather than venturing into improvisation †¢ Does it matter what is said early in the process? – What negotiators do in the first half of the process has a significant impact on their ability to generate integrative solutions with high joint gains †¢ Is more information always better? – Th ere is evidence that having more information does not automatically translate into better outcomes 4-113 How People Communicate n Negotiation †¢ Use of language operates at two levels: – Logical level (proposals, offers) – Pragmatic level (semantics, syntax, style) †¢ Use of nonverbal communication – Making eye contact – Adjusting body position – Nonverbally encouraging or discouraging what the other says 4-114 How People Communicate in Negotiation †¢ Selection of a communication channel – Communication is experienced differently when it occurs through different channels – People negotiate through a variety of communication media – by phone, in writing and increasingly through electronic channels or virtual negotiations Social bandwidth distinguishes one communication channel from another. †¢ the ability of a channel to carry and convey subtle social and relational cues from sender to receiver 4-115 How to I mprove Communication in Negotiation Three main techniques: 1. The use of questions 2. Listening 3. Role reversal 4-116 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Use of questions: two basic categories – Manageable questions †¢ cause attention or prepare the other person’s thinking for further questions: – â€Å"May I ask you a question? † †¢ getting information – â€Å"How much will this cost? † †¢ generating thoughts â€Å"Do you have any suggestions for improving this? † 4-117 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Use of questions: two basic categories – Unmanageable questions †¢ cause difficulty – â€Å"Where did you get that dumb idea? † †¢ give information – â€Å"Didn’t you know we couldn’t afford this? † †¢ bring the discussion to a false conclusion – â€Å"Don’t you think we have talked about this enough? † 4-118 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Listening: three major forms 1. Passive listening: Receiving the message while providing no feedback to the sender 2. Acknowledgment: Receivers nod their heads, maintain eye ontact, or interject responses 3. Active listening: Receivers restate or paraphrase the sender’s message in their own language 4-119 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Role reversal – – Negotiators understand the other party’s positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is convinced that he or she is understood Impact and success of the role-reversal technique †¢ Research suggests that role reversal is a useful tool for improving communication and the accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party’s position 4-120 Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations Avoiding fatal mistakes – Keeping track of what you expect to happen – Systematically guarding yourself against self-serving expectations – Reviewing the lessons from feedback for similar decisions in the future †¢ Achieving closure – Avoid surrendering important information needlessly – Refrain from making â€Å"dumb remarks† CHAPTER SEVEN Finding and Using Negotiation Power 4-122 Why Is Power Important to Negotiators? Seeking power in negotiation arises from one of two perceptions: 1. The negotiator believes he or she currently has less power than the other party. 2. The negotiator believes he or she needs more power than the other party. -123 A Definition of Power †¢ â€Å"an actor†¦has power in a given situation (situational power) to the degree that he can satisfy the purposes (goals, desires, or wants) that he is attempting to fulfill in that situation† †¢ Two perspectives on power: – Power used to dominate and control the other– â€Å"power over† – Power used to work together with the other–â€Å"power with† 4-124 Major Sources of Power – How People Acquire Power †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Informational sources of power Personal sources of power Power based on position in an organization Relationship-based sources of power Contextual sources of power 4-125 Informational Sources of Power Information is the most common source of power – Derived from the negotiator’s ability to assemble and organize data to support his or her position, arguments, or desired outcomes – A tool to challenge the other party’s position or desired outcomes, or to undermine the effectiveness of the other’s negotiating arguments 4-126 Power Based on Personality and Individual Differences †¢ Personal orientation †¢ Cognitive orientation – Ideologies about power †¢ Motivational orientation – Specific motives to use power †¢ Disposition and skills – Orientation t o cooperation/competition †¢ Moral orientation – Philosophical orientation to power use -127 Power Based on Position in an Organization Two major sources of power in an organization: †¢ Legitimate power which is grounded in the title, duties, and responsibilities of a job description and â€Å"level† within an organization hierarchy †¢ Power based on the control of resources associated with that position 4-128 Power Based on Position in an Organization Two major sources of power in an organization: †¢ Legitimate power is derived from occupying a particular job, office, or position in an organizational hierarchy – Power resides in the title and responsibilities of the job itself and the â€Å"legitimacy† of the office holder Legitimate power is the foundation of our social structure and may be acquired by birth, election or appointment or promotion 4-129 Power Based on Resource Control †¢ People who control resources have the capac ity to give them to someone who will do what they want, and withhold them (or take them away) from someone who doesn’t do what they want. 4-130 Power Based on Resource Control †¢ Some of the most important resources: – – – – – – – Money Supplies Human capital Time Equipment Critical services Interpersonal support 4-131 Power Based on Relationships †¢ Goal interdependence – How parties view their goals †¢ Referent power Based on an appeal to common experiences, common past, common fate, or membership in the same groups. †¢ Networks – Power is derived from whatever flows through that particular location in the structure (usually information and resources) 4-132 An Organization Hierarchy 4-133 An Organizational Network Isolated Dyad Star Gatekeeper Liaison External Environment Linking Pin Isolate 4-134 Power Based on Relationships †¢ Key aspects of networks: – Tie strength †¢ An i ndication of the strength or quality of relationships with others – Tie content †¢ The resource that passes along the tie with the other person – Network structure The overall set of relationships within a social system 4-135 Power Based on Relationships Aspects of network structure that determine power include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Centrality Criticality and relevance Flexibility Visibility Membership in a coalition 4-136 Contextual Sources of Power Power is based in the context, situation or environment in which negotiations take place. †¢ BATNAs – An alternative deal that a negotiator might pursue if she or he does not come to agreement with the current other party †¢ Culture – Often contains implicit â€Å"rules† about use of power †¢ Agents, constituencies and external audiences All these parties can become actively involved in pressuring others 4-137 Dealing with Others Who Have More Power †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Never do an all-or-nothing deal Make the other party smaller Make yourself bigger Build momentum through doing deals in sequence Use the power of competition to leverage power Constrain yourself Good information is always a source of power Ask many questions to gain more information Do what you can to manage the process CHAPTER EIGHT Ethics in Negotiation 4-139 What Do We Mean by Ethics and Why Do They Matter in Negotiation? Ethics: †¢ Are broadly applied social standards for what is right r wrong in a particular situation, or a process for setting those standards †¢ Grow out of particular philosophies which – Define the nature of the world in which we live – Prescribe rules for living together 4-140 Resolving Moral Problems 4-141 Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation †¢ Using ethically ambiguous tactics: It’s (mostly) all about the truth †¢ Identifying ethically ambig uous tactics and attitudes toward their use – What ethically ambiguous tactics are there? – Is it all right to use ethically ambiguous tactics? 4-142 Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation †¢ Deception by omission versus commission